What Is a Hypothesis The Scientific Method

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for an observation. The definition depends on the subject. In science, a hypothesis is part of the scientific method. It is a prediction or explanation that is tested by an experiment. Observations and experiments may disprove a scientific hypothesis, but can never entirely prove one. In the study of logic, a hypothesis is an if-then proposition, typically written in the form, If X, then Y. In common usage, a hypothesis is simply a proposed explanation or prediction, which may or may not be tested. Writing a Hypothesis Most scientific hypotheses are proposed in the if-then format because its easy to design an experiment to see whether or not a cause and effect relationship exists between the independent variable and the dependent variable. The hypothesis is written as a prediction of the outcome of the experiment. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis Statistically, its easier to show there is no relationship between two variables than to support their connection. So, scientists often propose the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis assumes changing the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis suggests changing the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable. Designing an experiment to test this hypothesis can be trickier because there are many ways to state an alternative hypothesis. For example, consider a possible relationship between getting a good nights sleep and getting good grades. The null hypothesis might be stated: The number of hours of sleep students get is unrelated to their grades or There is no correlation between hours of sleep and grades. An experiment to test this hypothesis might involve collecting data, recording average hours of sleep for each student and grades. If a student who gets eight hours of sleep generally does better than students who get four hours of sleep or 10 hours of sleep, the hypothesis might be rejected. But the alternative hypothesis is harder to propose and test. The most general statement would be: The amount of sleep students get affects their grades. The hypothesis might also be stated as If you get more sleep, your grades will improve or Students who get nine hours of sleep have better grades than those who get more or less sleep. In an experiment, you can collect the same data, but the statistical analysis is less likely to give you a high confidence limit. Usually, a scientist starts out with the null hypothesis. From there, it may be possible to propose and test an alternative hypothesis, to narrow down the relationship between the variables. Example of a Hypothesis Examples of a hypothesis include: If you drop a rock and a feather, (then) they will fall at the same rate.Plants need sunlight in order to live. (if sunlight, then life)Eating sugar gives you energy. (if sugar, then energy) Sources White, Jay D.  Research in Public Administration. Conn., 1998.Schick, Theodore, and Lewis Vaughn.  How to Think about Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2002.

Reflection On Self Awareness - 1416 Words

Reflection on Personal Cultural Self-Awareness When I was younger, I didn’t quite understand the differences between the Native Taiwanese and Mainlander in Taiwan, where Mainlander referred to Chinese migrants during or after the period of the surrender of Imperial Japan, and World War II. It wasn’t until much later that I understood why Taiwanese divided among themselves. I was told my mothers side of family has experienced the White Terror, which refers to the entire period from 1947 to 1987, during this period, many of the family lands were confiscated by the Kuomintang, the Chinese nationalist party. It was also during the White Terror period that Mandarin Chinese language was established as the official language of Taiwan, and the†¦show more content†¦As a young immigrant, while my parents have mostly retained their native cultural value, I have identified myself to be bicultural. I was raised in two-income family household, both of my parents have similar child-rearing method, which is the Authoritative child rearing style. My parents are more restrictive on the girls, growing up I was not allowed to spend the night at my friend’s house, and I was not allowed to date until I was at least 20 years old. However, if I was out with my friends, my parents trusted my judgement on what is the right thing to do, and that they expect I wil l be socially responsible. Consequently, I was able to develop my independence with the knowledge that I can always seek advice from my family if I ever encountered problems. As first-generation immigrant, I was expected to become successful as well as being fluent in a second language without challenge. I had put an incredible pressure on myself to live up to my family’s expectation, however, thankfully unlike many other first-generation immigrants that I know, my parents do not pressure what I should be studying in college, what career I should partake and if I should be married at a certain age. Instead they encourage me to peruse my interest and to construct my own future. Living in a small city predominantly of Caucasian population I was rarely exposed to cultural diversity, in many ways I didn’t feel like I belong in theShow MoreRelatedSelf Reflection And Self Awareness1484 Words   |  6 PagesWhen I was told I was required to take this course, Women in Leadership, I was very nervous. I was nervous because self-reflection and self-awareness are not something I focus on often. I tend to worry more about others and their happiness and success, focusing on them instead of myself. Some of this may be purposeful, but this class has helped me begin to self-reflect and I ve learned a great deal about myself along the way. I have many values and strengths, although it has taken me some timeRead MoreA Reflection On Self Awareness1782 Words   |  8 Pages *Names have been changed to protect the identities of all the people within this reflection. Stage 1 – Self Awareness: I was really looking forward to going back into birth suite. I feel it’s an area that I can always work to improve on my performance and self confidence. I strive to make improvements every shift and would like to be a competent midwife in any given situation. 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Everybody wants to be successful in college, but sometimes the way you are might get in the way of that, that’s where the topic of self-awareness comes in. Self-awareness is the process of paying attention to yourself from different perspectives and by that it means knowing how you work with your temperament, personality, intelligence and your learning style. VARK is the acronym that standsRead MoreSelf Assessment And Reflection On Self Awareness1024 Words   |  5 PagesSelf-Assessment and Reflection Ayofemi C. Cassell Grand Canyon University: UNV-605-0500 Leadership and Organizations 14 January 2015 â€Æ' Self-Assessment and Reflection Self-Awareness, self-concept and emotional intelligence are effective managerial concepts that will result in leadership success. According to Stanford University, having these soft skills are indispensable traits that good managers should develop to be successful leaders. Managers strive to become aware of who they are, what theirRead MoreReflection Paper On Self Awareness1337 Words   |  6 PagesThe IAT self-awareness reflection paper will discuss personal reactions to the results of the exercise. It will also reflect on personal development towards being culturally competent counselor and the areas of growth. In addition, the paper will identify certain techniques to improvise counseling with LGBTQI+ clients. Reactions: My result of the IAT self-awareness test showed slight preference towards the straight people over gay people. Although the test results showed slight preference towardsRead MoreReflection Paper On Self Awareness2252 Words   |  10 Pageshelp me understand myself in a way that inspires growth; the questions and structure of the assessment resonated with my true feelings, inciting reflection, and making me more transparent. 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These types of questions, as I haveRead MoreReflection Paper On Self Awareness Essay1811 Words   |  8 PagesSelf-Awareness Today I was apprehensive as it was my first time in a clinical experience. Based on my perspective that cancer ends in death and is full of struggles for the individual, I began feeling very depressed when meeting each patient. I began to realize this is the case as two out of the three patients I had met, had cancer and I became very quiet and did not know what to say to them as the nurse was hanging chemotherapy. I have hope that as time goes on I will learn how to overcome thisRead MoreBecoming A Helper : Reflection On Self Awareness And Cultural Competence1819 Words   |  8 Pages Becoming a Helper: A Reflection on Self Awareness and Cultural Competence In early elementary school, I would go into people’s desks, break their pencils, and then find a glue stick and tape, put them back together, and put them back in their desk. Now, you must be thinking, what kind of horrible child does something so intentionally mean? However, that’s the thing. My intentions were always good because I was trying to help people. I wasn’t thinking â€Å"oh I want to break their pencils,† but rather

Qualitative inquiries and the enhancement - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Qualitative inquiries and the enhancement. Answer: Identification of stakeholders in the situation: As pointed out by Burton (2017), a stakeholder is an individual, a group or a firm, which has concern or interest in a firm or another individual. The stakeholders could influence or be influenced by the actions and policies of an individual or organisation. However, there are groups of stakeholders, who have different goals and objectives. For instance, some of the main stakeholders include directors, creditors, staffs, government, owners, unions, suppliers, individual and the overall community from the perspective of a business organisation. An ethical dilemma takes place when a moral obligation is needed to adhere to two different courses of action. However, the circumstances of the situation only enable to select one of the two courses (Henderson et al. 2015). An instance would be to report unethical act on the part of an individual involved in some type of fraud or cheating, which is the situation identified from the case study. In this case, the associated stakeholders with the individual might be in the fear of making monetary loss. However, by avoiding the reporting of wrongdoing, the associated stakeholders have been put in jeopardy (Lawson et al. 2015). The identification of major stakeholders is necessary for ethical behaviour and if the stakeholders could not be identified, it might result in unethical decision without the realisation of a moral dilemma in the first place. The case study states that Vicky had paid Becks to purchase the accounting textbook and the latter individual had accepted the same. At the first instance, this might look moral and reasonable; however, it has resulted in unethical behaviour, in which Becks has retained the money of Becks saved in purchasing the accounting textbook. There is no perfect procedure for a stakeholder to deal with ethical dilemmas (Martinov-Bennie and Mladenovic 2015). Irrespective of the selection, it is necessary for a stakeholder to encounter and accept the consequences of the actions taken. The first procedure is to analyse the potential actions to be taken and then picking up the course that would be least problematic from the moral perspective. The second method constitutes of the potential outcomes of actions along with choosing the course of action with the maximum benefits or lowest harm. According to the provided case study, it has been found that Becks and Vicky are two friends, who are pursuing their university studies. In addition, it has been identified that both the individuals intended to major in Accounting. However, due to some family problems, it has been found that Vicky had to return home. Hence, the main stakeholders identified in this situation include Becks and Vicky. This is because Vicky has provided an amount to Becks for purchasing an accounting textbook, which the latter person accepted. However, at the time of purchase, Becks had saved a part of the money obtained from Vicky, which he did not return to the latter. Thus, this case study identifies the two major stakeholders as Vicky and Becks, the accounting students. Ethical issues involved: In the words of Burton (2017), ethical issue could be defined as a situation or problem, which needs an individual or an organisation to select between the options that should be evaluated as right (ethical) or wrong (unethical). The most fundamental ethical issue observed in this case is trust, while integrity could be identified as another issue. In this case, the basic understanding of integrity is to conduct the purchase of book with honesty and a commitment to treat a friend in a fair manner. When an individual perceives that another individual is showing unwavering commitment to ethical practices, it leads to formation of trust between two individuals. Thus, a relationship of trust between two friends needs to be a key determinate in assisting in university studies. Along with this, ethical decision-making process need to centre on protecting individuals and their rights by ensuring that all acts made are just and fair. From the provided case study, it has been found out that Becks has made a profit of $15 by acquiring the text at a lower price in contrast to the text price of the bookshop of $80. Becks has misled Vicky by failing to reveal the cost price of $65, which denotes the amount paid for the textbook. In this context, Apostolou et al. (2015) stated that not disclosing the actual price of an item to an individual could be adjudged as a severe ethical issue. On the other hand, Ames et al. (2017) are of the view that such practice enables the former individual in saving additional money, which would help in future investments. In addition, it could be seen that Vicky has lost the benefit of the minimised price cost saving of $15. From another perspective, it could be stated that Becks has not acted honestly, as he has retained the additional $15 of Vicky. Thus, the behaviour of Becks is not ethical or friendly at all. In this regard, Bebbington, Unerman and O'Dwyer (2014) advocated that such unethical behaviour on the part of an individual might lead to trust issues from the perspective of another individual, which would act as hindrance in future monetary transactions. Moreover, Becks had told Vicky that he lost the receipt, which has helped him in saving additional money for the new textbook. Thus, Vicky would not know that Becks has charged additional amount from her to purchase the textbook; thus, involving in unethical practices. The case study further states that Becks has not provided any information to Vicky about the economic value of the book. This denotes that there is breach of duty on the part of Becks to Vicky by not purchasing the new book at $65 and offering $15 balance in return. Moreover, it implies that Becks has cheated Vicky in purchasing the textbook, which has resulted in monetary loss for the latter individual. Hence, these are identified as the main ethical issues involved in the situation regarding the purchase of the accounting textbook. Alternatives to Becks: As identified from the case study, Becks had received $80 from Vicky for purchasing an accounaccountingtextbook. However, Becks has saved $15 from $80 provided on the part of Vicky and he had not returned the same to the latter as well. This has lead to formation of an ethical dilemma, which might lead to lack of integrity and trust (Shapiro and Stefkovich 2016). However, in order to avoid such unethical situation, Becks could have undertaken a series of actions, which are demonstrated briefly as follows: Providing the correct change to Vicky: According to Slade and Prinsloo (2013), it is necessary to build trust between two stakeholders to maintain ethical integrity. In this case, it has been found out that Becks has made a profit of $15 by acquiring the text at a lower price in contrast to the text price of the bookshop of $80. Becks has misled Vicky by failing to reveal the cost price of $65, which denotes the amount paid for the textbook. In addition, it could be seen that Vicky has lost the benefit of the minimised price cost saving of $15. Thus, the behaviour of Becks is not ethical or friendly at all. Moreover, Becks had told Vicky that he lost the receipt, which has helped him in saving additional money for the new textbook. Hence, Becks could have told Vicky about the real situation and he needs to provide the correct change to Vicky to maintain the ethical dilemma. Purchasing a new brand accounting textbook for S80: According to the provided case study, it has been found that Becks and Vicky are two friends, who are pursuing their university studies. In addition, it has been identified that both the individuals intended to major in Accounting. However, due to some family problems, it has been found that Vicky had to return home. Hence, the main stakeholders identified in this situation include Becks and Vicky. This is because Vicky has provided an amount to Becks for purchasing an accounting textbook, which the latter person accepted (Zadek, Evans and Pruzan 2013). The case study further states that Becks has not provided any information to Vicky about the economic value of the book. This denotes that there is breach of duty on the part of Becks to Vicky by not purchasing the new book at $65 and offering $15 balance in return. Moreover, it implies that Becks has cheated Vicky in purchasing the textbook, which has resulted in a monetary loss for the latter individual. In order to avoid the conflicting situation, the first procedure is to analyse the potential actions to be taken and then picking up the course that would be least problematic from the moral perspective (Weiss 2014). The second method constitutes of the potential outcomes of actions along with choosing the course of action with the maximum benefits or lowest harm. Hence, Becks could have purchased a brand new accounting textbook for Vicky in exchange of $80, which is listed on the part of the bookshop. References: Ames, A., Smith, K.L., Sanchez, E.R., Pyle, L., Ball, T. and Hawk, W.J., 2017. Impact and persistence of ethical reasoning education on student learning: results from a module-based ethical reasoning educational program.International Journal of Ethics Education,2(1), pp.77-96. Apostolou, B., Dorminey, J.W., Hassell, J.M. and Rebele, J.E., 2015. Accounting education literature review (20132014).Journal of Accounting Education,33(2), pp.69-127. Bebbington, J., Unerman, J. and O'Dwyer, B. eds., 2014.Sustainability accounting and accountability. Routledge. Burton, F.G., 2017. Discussion of: National Culture and Ethical Judgment: A Social Contract Approach to the Contrast of Ethical Decision Making by Accounting Professionals and Students from the US and Italy.Journal of International Accounting Research,16(2), pp.121-126. Eisner, E.W., 2017.The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice. Teachers College Press. Henderson, S., Peirson, G., Herbohn, K. and Howieson, B., 2015.Issues in financial accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Lawson, R.A., Blocher, E.J., Brewer, P.C., Morris, J.T., Stocks, K.D., Sorensen, J.E., Stout, D.E. and Wouters, M.J., 2015. Thoughts on competency integration in accounting education.Issues in Accounting Education,30(3), pp.149-171. Martinov-Bennie, N. and Mladenovic, R., 2015. Investigation of the impact of an ethical framework and an integrated ethics education on accounting students ethical sensitivity and judgment.Journal of Business Ethics,127(1), pp.189-203. Shapiro, J.P. and Stefkovich, J.A., 2016.Ethical leadership and decision making in education: Applying theoretical perspectives to complex dilemmas. Routledge. Slade, S. and Prinsloo, P., 2013. Learning analytics: Ethical issues and dilemmas.American Behavioral Scientist,57(10), pp.1510-1529. Weiss, J.W., 2014.Business ethics: A stakeholder and issues management approach. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Zadek, S., Evans, R. and Pruzan, P., 2013.Building corporate accountability: Emerging practice in social and ethical accounting and auditing. Routledge.

Spatial Ability Studies on Men and Women

Introduction Gathering hypothesis is an evolutionary term that gives details on how people have changed gradually over generations. Tools in earlier times were primarily used for digging and harvesting crops and not for hunting. Later, people acquired complex tools, which they used to hunt, remove skin, and cut things.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Spatial Ability Studies on Men and Women specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Mcburney et al. (1997), one of sources of proof in support of the gathering hypothesis is the good spatial memory of women. The scholars argue that women do better in jobs that are associated with recalling unlike their male counterparts who do better in rotation jobs. The theory of gathering and hunting on sex differences states that women’s knowledge and capability to understand things has gradually changed to suit gathering while men’s capability has evolved t o suit hunting (Ecuyer-Dab Robert, 2007). The differences in sex can be referred to as spatial abilities. However, results on spatial ability studies on men and women are normally conflicting. For instance, Ecuyer-Dab and Robert (2007) maintain that the degree of spatial ability is practical and that the difference in men and women in specific spatial test is big and strong. Based on their empirical research findings, Piccardi et al., (2008) argues that present findings show that women are good in some specific spatial jobs such as object location than men. The aim of this paper is to present a literature review on the conflicting findings of how evolutionary theories and social psychology theories explain sex differences in the gathering hypothesis. This aim is achieved by focusing on two main research questions. Do women truly have better object location skills relative to men? Do women do better in gathering as opposed to hunting that is associated with men? In the effort to pro vide ample response to these questions, it is hypothesized that women and men have spatial differences, which influence their abilities in participating in hunting and gathering, with neither of the two being suited for both tasks. Research Methodology This research paper uses literature review of peer-reviewed journals as the main research methodology. The selection of this research methodology is done in full awareness of the demerits of using secondary materials as sources of data for use in a research process. One of such drawbacks is the incapacity of the data to reflect current trends in a particular area of research.Advertising Looking for term paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, this demerit is addressed sufficiently through a careful selection of articles for review. Indeed, the journal articles chosen are peer reviewed. This means that requisite bodies of knowledge have already evaluated the ir quality and reliability in the presentation of data about the research in sex differences in the gathering hypothesis. In the context of this research, these bodies are social psychology and evolutionary theorists. Since the goal of the research is to compare the research findings, it is anticipated that such articles are helpful and reliable in drawing inferences for the research. Proofs or arguments against the hypothesis utilized in this research are also expected to be reliable based on the assumption of the quality and reliability of the peer-reviewed journals. Literature Review One of the theoretical hypotheses in the studies of sex differences in the gathering-hunting theory is that women truly have better object location relative to men. Silverman, Choi, and Peters (2007) sort to verify this hypothesis through their empirical study that analyzed of whether sex-related competencies akin to spatial differences are universal. As they had forecasted in their study hypothesis, their empirical study revealed that males were at the top in comparison to females in three-dimensional assessment based on psychological alternation tasks given to people from 40 nations and from 7 cultural classes of individuals. According to their research findings, women â€Å"scored significantly higher than men on a test of object location memory in all 7 ethnic groups in 35 countries† (Silverman, Choi Peters, 2007, p.261). These findings confirm the existing body of knowledge that men have advantages in successful performance of hunting-related tasks together with rotational tasks. However, the differences between sexes in terms of spatial abilities are not centrally divided as may be evident from the evolutionary theory for gathering-hunting hypothesis. The difference is explicitly expressed in linear terms where men are positioned on the highest scale in terms of their magnitude of spatial abilities (Piccardi et al., 2008). Contextualizing these differences in spat ial abilities, Joshua, Max, Danielle, and Steven (2007) present their arguments on the evolutionary theory by holding that spatial differences in sex can be explained in explicit terms through consideration of qualitative differences in abilities of different sexes as opposed to quantitative levels of abilities. The evolutionary theory with regard to the explanations of spatial sex differences is rooted in the Pleistocene era in which divisions of labor had the repercussion of rendering men to function principally in hunting roles while women engaged in roles such as participation in food gathering.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Spatial Ability Studies on Men and Women specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The degree of existence in which the Pleistocene era holds significant representations of the splitting of spatial abilities along sex spatial differences is dependent the empirical finding on the manner in which different abilities are segregated and distributed depending on sex. This case can be explained by consideration of two main sources of evidence on the differences in spatial skills dating back to primitive time of human development history. Reseachers such as Silverman, Choi, and Peters (2007) have demonstrated that there exists a positive relationship between various scores acquired from spatial test and accuracy of throwing objects (p.265). This skill is paramount when it comes to addressing the issue of the ability to capture a prey. In a different empirical research, McBurney et al. (1997) reveal a positive correlation between the ‘way finding through orientation’ and 3DMR. Way finding through orientation without the help of landmarks is a crucial skill for helping to pursue and track a prey randomly in terrain that is not familiar to the hunter while not losing the track for getting back home.  Empirical research deploying virtual maze and research conduct ed using physical forest area by an evolutionary researcher (Moffat) in 1998 determined whether the participants could trace their original position using the shortest path after being taken through a random and circuitous path. It indicated that the ability to do so was dependent on the sex of the participants (Silverman, Choi Peters 2007). Referring to this research, Silverman, Choi, and Peters (2007) concludes, â€Å"In the latter study, regression analysis showed that the male advantage in way finding by orientation could be fully explained by sex differences† (p.261). Way finding being a significant skill for hunting in an unfamiliar territory implies that the evolutionary theory on spatial abilities, as it relates to sex differences, holds substance in terms of explaining the differences in skill level abilities of men and women from the context of hunting and gathering. Attempting to explain the differences in spatial skills abilities between males and females from th e approach deployed by Silverman, Choi, and Peters (2007) infers that sex influences the hunting or gathering skill of an individual. Deployment of biological research in evolutionary theory suggests that sex is permanent and that an individual has no control over it since it is determined by the genetic makeup of the individual (Joshua, Max, Danielle Steven, 2007). Does it then mean that the genetic makeup of an individual can influence the gathering and hunting skills he or she possesses?  The above position is refuted by social psychologists who see sex as a mechanism of determining the gender of an individual and not a set of tasks that a given person should execute by virtual of belonging to a given sex.Advertising Looking for term paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the context of spatial differences, social psychologists argue that attributing gathering to women and hunting abilities to men is a mechanism of determination of gender roles, which according to them are merely normalizations of the society (Hardy-Fanta Sierra, 2009). The argument is that attribution of certain behaviors and tasks such as gathering or hunting to a specific sex is misplaced since people from either sex can equally perform any task as long as environmental training is done on the individual. This claim implies that the ability to do certain tasks and not others is acquired from the environment through social interaction, which is the theoretical inclination of social psychologists (Hardy-Fanta Sierra, 2009).  From social psychologists point of view, spatial differences in sex abilities are a phenomenon that is enhanced through behavior training. Hence, men and women can equally perform well in the gathering or hunting tasks on equal training. While there is th e need to appreciate and understand the need for equal participation of persons of different sexes in the modern era for different social tasks in equal thresholds, evidence on sex differences in the gathering and hunting reveals otherwise. For instance, Hazda women have better object location than men (Cashdan et al., 2012) do. Therefore, women tend to do better in gathering relative to men.  The empirical research conducted by Cashdan et al. (2012) on sex differences in terms of spatial competencies mentions the Hadza people (hunter-gatherers group of people living in Tanzania). The authors sort to determine whether Euclidian perceptions of spatial abilities can be located in this group of people in terms of their mobility levels. They also sort to know whether women from the population were better equipped with location memory skills in comparison to men as an important skill for possession of gathering abilities as predicted and argued by the evolutionary theory (Cashdan et al ., 2012). The empirical study also determined whether women who are identified by other women as having the highest skills in gathering bush foods would also possess high memory for location of objects. The researchers deployed â€Å"object location memory with a version of the memory game using cards of local plants and animals† (Cashdan et al., 2012, p.274) to realize their research objectives. This testing methodology was essential in helping to determine whether men and women from the Hadz population would possess the same spatial memory capacity for animals together with plant cards. The research findings indicated that Hadz men performed exemplary well in three main tests for spatial ability: â€Å"water-level test, targeting, and the ability to point accurately to distant locations† (Cashdan et al., 2012, p.275). In particular, possession of higher targeting skills among men shows that men are better hunters in relation to women since hunting is an essential ski ll in catching a prey.  Although Cashdan’s et al. (2012) empirical research on women who were regarded as the best bush foods finders comprised old women, gathering was as a task was best suited to women in comparison to men. However, this case was not attributable to good object location memory since â€Å"there was a trend towards male advantage at the object location memory† (Cashdan et al., 2012, p.274). This verdict opposes past research findings that indicated that women have better object location skills hence making them better gatherers in comparison to men. These mixed findings create a room for social psychologists to advance their theoretical paradigms that both sexes can equally perform well in all tasks that are predominantly believed as the province of one sex and not the other depending on the context and level of training through environmental interactions,. The above position is subject to scholarly interrogation especially by considering the mixed findings on the evidence of possessing better gathering skills among women as discussed by Stoet (2011). The empirical researcher argues, â€Å"Existing studies corroborate that men excel in hunting-related skills, but there is only indirect support for women excelling in gathering tasks† (Stoet, 2011, p.416). This aspect supports the conflicting findings on spatial differences in sex abilities introduced by Cashdan et al. (2012). Upon integrating the findings of Cashdan et al. (2012), Brown (2013), and Stoet (2011), it is arguable that the spatial ability of men in hunting is recognized by the evolutionary hypothesis scholars amid the existence of evidence, especially from social psychologists against the perception of contributions of gender differences in the performance of societal roles. The gatherer-hunter hypothesis argues that sex differences are organized such that women cognitions are adapted evolutionarily so that they are better gatherers while men are better hunt ers. While this hypothesis is verified from the context of Joshua, Max, Danielle, and Steven (2007), it does not pass the verification test based on empirical evidence findings from Stoet (2011). Stoet (2011) conducted three experimental tests to verify whether men are well adapted to hunting while women are well adapted to gathering tasks by testing whether women would outperform men in some laboratory chores, which require gathering skills. From the findings of the first experiment, men were able to locate target objects at a higher pace relative to women. Men did this with minimal errors when â€Å"a classic visual search study† (Stoet, 2011, p.416) was conducted. In the second experiment, men and women participants were required to gather various items including letters depicted on a screen. Men again outperformed women. Lastly, in the last experiment, â€Å"incidental learning of object locations in a search experiment was studied, but no statistically significant sex d ifferences were observed† (Stoet, 2011, 418). This finding again disapproves that women cognitions are adapted to gathering tasks as advanced by the evolutionary hypothesis. The theory that men can perform better in tasks that are for women is supported from the position of social psychologist, the argument that women can equally perform in tasks that are predominantly perceived as the chores for men is nullified based on Stoet’s (2011) findings. Amid conflicts of the evolutionary hypothesis emanating from Stoet’s (2011) findings and Cashdan et al. (2012), Neave, Hamilton, Hutton, Tildesley, Pickering, (2005) argue that such conflicts emanate from utilization of methodologies, which are void of ecological validity in the attempt to conduct empirical studies to verify the evolutionary theory. The five researchers conducted two studies â€Å"in which object recognition and object location memory were addressed using real plants within naturalistic arrays† (N eave et al. 2005, p.146). They report that, in the first study, female participants identified particular plants that were located in small arrays faster and with few mistakes in comparison to their male counterparts. Similar results were obtained in the second experiment where complex and bigger arrays were used to test object location skills between the male and female participants. These findings confirm the validity of the gathering hypothesis. Nevertheless, it is opposed the social psychological arguments that men and women can equally perform in similar tasks subject to erosion of gender roles profiling (Hardy-Fanta Sierra, 2009). While noting the heated scholarly debate on empirical evidence for validity of the gathering hypothesis, Ecuyer-Dab and Robert (2007) appreciates the need for verification of the hypothesis via meaningful ecological tests. The empirical researchers do this by reviewing evidence â€Å"after surveying the main anthropological information on ancestral sex-related foraging† (p.365). The aim of the research was to evaluate the degree of robustness of the theoretical paradigm that women have peculiar advantages in object location memory in comparison to men. Tantamount to Neave, Hamilton, Hutton, Tildesley, Pickering (2005), their findings verified the gathering hypothesis since women were found to be better object locators as opposed to men. Conclusion The evolutionary hypothesis depicts sex as having the ability to determine various abilities between men and women. Women sex differences are cognitively adapted to engage in activities that relate to gathering due to their possession of cute object location skills. Conversely, men are well cognitively adapted to gathering due to their orientation, targeting, and navigational skills without losing the direction to get them back to their initial point of origin. As argued in the literature review section, several attempts have been made by various evolutionary scholars to condu ct empirical studies to verify this pure evolutionally hypothesis. Nevertheless, different empirical researchers have obtained different results from these studies leading to conflicting and similar conclusion about the validity of the evolutionary theory. Through discussion of various research findings on empirical studies on the evolutionary theory, the study finds significant points of contention and departure from the postulation of gathering-hunter hypothesis. The researchers considered in the literature review verify the applicability and validity of the evolutionary theory in explaining the spatial abilities of men in hunting. In case of association of women with spatial gathering abilities, different researches provide different empirical evidence for the hypotheses’ validity. In the attempt to interpret the social psychological theory based on aspects of spatial divisions of labor, the study finds it insignificant since men are presented as possessing spatial abiliti es, which are contended upon by the empirical evidence provided by different scholars whose empirical studies have been deployed to conduct the literature review. Reference List Brown, J. (2013). A sex difference in location-based inhibition-of-return. Personality Individual Differences, 54(6), 721-725. Cashdan, E., Marlowe, W., Crittenden, A., Porter, C., Wood, M. (2012). Sex differences in spatial cognition among Hadza foragers. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(4), 274-284. Ecuyer-Dab, I., Robert, M. (2007). The Female Advantage in Object Location Memory According to the Foraging Hypothesis: A Critical Analysis. Human Nature, 18(4), 365-385. Hardy-Fanta, C., Sierra,C. (2009). Gender, race, and descriptive representation in the United States. Findings from the gender and multicultural leadership project. Journal of women politics and policy 28(3), 7-41. Joshua, N., Max, M., Danielle, T., Steven, J. (2007). Spatial adaptations for plant foraging: women excel and calories count: Proceedings of the Royal Society. Biological Sciences, 274(1626), 2679-2684. McBurney, H., Gaulin, C., Devineni, T., Adams, C. (1997). Superior spatial memory of women: Stronger evidence for the gathering hypothesis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18(3), 165-174. Neave, N., Hamilton, C., Hutton, L., Tildesley, N., Pickering, T. (2005). Some Evidence of a Female Advantage in Object Location Memory Using Ecologically Valid Stimuli. Human Nature, 16(2), 146-163. Piccardi, L., Iaria, G., Ricci, M., Bianchini, F., Zompanti, L., Guariglia, C. (2008). Walking in the Corsi test: Which type of memory do you need? Neuroscience Letters, 432(2), 127-131. Silverman, I., Choi J., Peters, M. (2007). The hunter gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: data from 40 countries. Arch sex behavior, 36(3), 261-268. Stoet, G. (2011). Sex differences in search and gathering skills. Evolution and Human Behavior, 32(6), 416-422. This term paper on Spatial Ability Studies on Men and Women was written and submitted by user Kayson Reed to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.